Introduction

In a rapidly changing world marked by increasing uncertainties, society needs individuals who can actively shape their future, develop innovative solutions, and adapt quickly. This requires these individuals to not only be equipped with knowledge and skills, but also the attitude to explore new avenues and take action in real-world situations. As a teacher or educational developer, you play an important role in shaping this new generation of students, but how can you do this in an effective, healthy and supportive way? How do we prepare students to step into the world not as passive participants, but as creative, emphatic, and critical thinkers and deliberate actors, individuals who question, innovate, and contribute meaningfully to society?

This is where education on the personal and professional development (PPD) of students comes into play. This book is the result of years of experience developing, teaching and assessing this specific type of education, resulting in the SCOPE approach.

What is personal and professional development?

Whereas personal development is about the broader development of the student as an individual (Fleer, 2025), professional development encompasses the continuous acquisition of competencies—defined as an integration of knowledge, skills, abilities and behaviours—and is aimed at enhancing students’ effectiveness in their current or future professional roles (Brewer, 2013; Chadha & Heng, 2024; Tuononen et al., 2022). These professional competencies equip students with the capacity to bring discipline-specific knowledge and skills into practice. They enable students to contribute meaningfully to organisations, businesses and society, and successfully deal with the complex challenges that they face (Osmani et al., 2019; Scott & Willison, 2021).

To date, an extensive body of literature exists on professional development. In this body, however, numerous terms are used to describe competencies that relate to professional development, including ‘generic skills’, ‘soft skills’, ‘non-technical skills’, ‘life skills’ and ‘transferable skills’ (Osmani et al., 2019; Tuononen et al., 2022). These terms refer to competencies that can be used in broader contexts and are applicable to a variety of jobs, industries and situations. They are not tied to a specific role or profession but can easily be ‘transferred’ from one context to another, as opposed to discipline-specific or technical skills that can only be used in specific contexts (Majid et al., 2019). In other words, transferable skills refer to skills that allow students to become adaptive learners equipped to navigate personal, social, and work-related challenges (Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012). In addition, authors have emphasised the need for competencies to contribute to sustainability or to deal with other complex challenges, called ‘sustainability competencies’ or ‘transformational skills’ (Bianchi et al., 2022; Cambridge University Press & Assessment, 2021; Inner Development Goals, 2021; Kioupi & Voulvoulis, 2022). The umbrella term ‘professional development’ covers this variety of terminology and frameworks. Examples of professional competencies underlying professional development are self-management, effective communication, team collaboration, cultural competencies, planning, time management and critical reflection.

The concept of professional development is related to, but distinct from, personal development. To us, the main difference lies in their focus: while personal development emphasises overall self-development (emotional, mental, and social), professional development is work-oriented, aiming to enhance job-related skills and behaviours. Both share a common goal in fostering self-knowledge and supporting lifelong learning. In addition, some competencies contribute to both professional and personal development, while others do not. For example, active listening and empathy are valuable for leaders and managers but also enrich daily interactions, whereas formal presentation skills are primarily applied in professional contexts. Given the formal educational environment in which we operate, the emphasis is often placed on professional development rather than personal development, even though true professional development stems from paying attention to personal development in education.

A core component of our SCOPE approach to personal and professional development in education involves students reflecting, in a structured way, on who they are as individuals and how they interact with the world around them (including their study environment and future professional environment). That is why we promote PPD education as a method through which we support students in both their personal and professional development.

The purpose of this handbook

Whether you are building a PPD learning line from scratch, redesigning an existing course, or simply looking for ways to incorporate more PPD content into your teaching, this handbook might be suitable. As a teacher or an educational developer, you might consider personal and professional development too important to reduce to a checklist of competencies or a collection of isolated activities. You might be on the lookout for a coherent approach—defined by a shared vision, developed together with colleagues, students, and program leaders—which translates that vision into concrete, meaningful education. While numerous competency frameworks (e.g. Inner Development Goals) outline the skills needed for students to learn, they often lack a clear, pedagogical translation into concrete teaching practices. Education must move beyond abstract lists of competencies and instead design intentional, reflective learning experiences that help students develop and apply these skills and attitudes in meaningful ways. PPD education, according to the SCOPE approach, can provide the missing link.

That is exactly what this handbook offers. Drawing on the evidence-informed work that we executed within a medical faculty and that is designed to be applicable across educational contexts, we provide a practical pathway that connects vision, theory, and pedagogy to the classroom. Throughout this handbook, you will find concrete examples of educational activities that should not simply be copied into the curriculum but instead be treated as a source of inspiration from which to design your own PPD approach—one that fits your program, your students, and your context.

This handbook remains a work in progress. Over time, we will write more relevant chapters and adapt current chapters to stay up to date with current ideas about PPD, reflection and education.

Why do we need Personal and Professional Development education in curricula?

We argue that PPD education is important to support the individual development of a student both as a person and as a professional. However, there are more arguments as to why we would advocate for PPD to have a more explicit role in curricula. Indeed, there are two main reasons for why we believe PPD is important to consider as a topic in education. Each reason will be briefly introduced and elaborated on in the sections that follow.

First of all, PPD education is important in the context of student well-being. Competencies related to PPD education, such as reflection skills and self-management, have been associated with improved well-being and academic achievement (Akpur, 2020; Ghanizadeh, 2017). Therefore, PPD education may generate short-term benefits for student well-being as well as long-term benefits, considering that students develop competencies to manage their well-being both in the short and long run.

It is great that students are thinking about what kind of dental hygienist they want to be; this way, they can consciously shape a sustainable career as dental hygienist. (Teacher Dental Hygiene)

Second, both the work field and society in general appeal for the development of professional competencies among students (Bianchi et al., 2022; Kioupi & Voulvoulis, 2022, p. 406; Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012). Due to changes in jobs, the organisation of tasks, and a growing recognition of the need to develop non-technical skills, an emphasis on students’ professional development has emerged. For instance, reviews of job advertisements showed that these postings always included a repertoire of required professional competencies (Osmani et al., 2019; Tan & Laswad, 2018). From a societal perspective, there is a demand for students with competencies that are much needed to face complex global challenges, such as climate change, violent conflicts and health inequalities (Bianchi et al., 2022, 2022; Kioupi & Vouloulis, 2022). Examples of these competencies are perspective taking and dealing with uncertainty. On their website, the Inner Development Goals (2021) initiative points out that ‘we urgently need to increase our collective abilities to face and work effectively with complex challenges’ in order for a sustainable world to thrive.

PPD education helped identify what truly was essential for me, what part of this essence I can contribute with in my work, and how my job needs to fulfill them. Getting to know myself in a professional context helped me understand much more about how well I fit into my profession, where I can improve and what core values need to be present in my professional role. (Master student Clinical and Psychosocial Epidemiology)

Supporting student development and well-being

In recent years, there has been a rise in attention for the well-being of students. Students themselves have expressed concerns about their ability to cope with the stressors of student life, as well as their career prospects and preparedness for diverse and rapidly changing professional environments (Cruess et al., 2016; Silveira et al., 2019). Their well-being and personal and professional development are closely linked to the gap between who they are and who they aspire or feel they ought to be (Self-Discrepancy Theory; Higgins, 1987). When this discrepancy is large or remains unresolved, it can lead to stress, anxiety, and lower self-esteem (Joseph et al., 2017). Reflecting on these gaps and translating them into purposeful action can help ease this distress. Education on PPD offers the space and support for such reflections, contributing to self-awareness and self-regulation (Locke & Latham, 2002).

The impact of student well-being

Perhaps you have noticed in your classes that students are struggling with their mental health. A recent national study by the Trimbos Institute (Rijksintituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu, RIVM, 2025a)—which is consistent with international research—indicates that many students in Dutch higher education experience symptoms of anxiety, depression, or performance pressure. Students at the University of Groningen show similar patterns, with local data confirming high levels of stress and mental health concerns (RIVM, 2025b). The national Trimbos report also highlights that more than half of students feel they lack effective coping strategies to manage their stress. Within the academic context, this is concerning given that poor mental health is closely linked to negative academic outcomes, including lower academic performance (RIVM, 2025a) and an increased risk of dropping out of university (e.g., Klinkenberg & Kappe, 2025).

The impact of student well-being also extends into the long term. According to the World Health Organisation (2024) depression and anxiety lead to around 12 billion lost working days annually, costing roughly US$ 1 trillion (~€900 billion) in lost productivity. In the Netherlands, psychological complaints—particularly burnouts—are the main cause of long-term absenteeism (RIVM, 2024). Given current labour shortages and the societal costs of mental health-related absenteeism, it will benefit both students and the labour market if students learn how to understand themselves and their environment, and how to navigate between the two without losing sight of their own needs (Fleer, 2025).

The role of educational institutions

Concerns about student well-being have already prompted universities to broaden their focus from ‘study success’ to ‘student success’. Student success is not only about graduating efficiently; it also includes the overall development of the individual student—academic, personal, and social (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, RUG, 2021; Universiteiten van Nederland, 2022). Most definitions of (student) well-being focus on finding a balance between the positive and negative parts of (student) life. Handling ups and downs, dealing with stress, and building your skills are personal and constantly changing processes, which partly happen within the (higher) education context. Moreover, well-being is not just about mental health—it also includes physical and social aspects. When students experience positive well-being, it shows in their resilience, their personal and professional growth, and their achievements (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, n.d.; Universiteiten van Nederland, 2022).

Nationally (Landelijk Kader Studentenwelzijn; RIVM, 2023) and within our university (i.e. the University of Groningen), attention for PPD is recognised as essential for student well-being. The Action Plan on Student Well-being (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, 2024) states the following on page 10:

Personal development is crucial for students throughout their academic journey, enabling them to grow personally and professionally while preparing for post-graduation careers. Stimulating personal growth and social responsibility is a core responsibility of higher education institutions, as mandated by law (WHW 1.3.5). Consequently, educational programmes must assist students in becoming resilient, well-rounded professionals capable of navigating the complexities of modern society and managing stress effectively.

Some educational approaches focus directly on supporting student well-being. For example, reflecting on one’s personal values can help students cope with stress by fostering meaning-making (Chmiel & Kroplewski, 2025). In particular, educational institutions often focus on themes such as stress management and study–life balance.

In some instances, these themes are offered as one-off activities based on different theoretical perspectives and teaching approaches. For students, this might come across as unfamiliar or disconnected, especially if these activities are not aligned with the rest of their curriculum. This highlights the importance of a coherent learning line, as these initiatives are often experienced as separate from the curriculum rather than integrated into it. In our SCOPE approach, we find it important to align activities related to PPD with students’ needs and the educational vision of the curriculum.

We experienced different types of activities; I liked the theories and the different tools we learned to manage our stress. I feel like I learnt a lot about myself and my stress. The things I learned I can and do use in my daily life. Taking this course has helped my stress management and my overall well-being. (Bachelor student Dentistry about a course on well-being and stress management)

Conclusion

Even if education does not explicitly target well-being, paying attention to any part of PPD—students understanding themselves, their context, and how they act within it—can help reduce discrepancies or ease the impact of this distress. Teaching students how to navigate a context that may or may not align with who they are and who they want to be enables them to feel more confident, improve their well-being, and perform better.

Preparation for ‘the world out there’

The ambition of our educational institutions is to equip individuals with the necessary skills, knowledge and attitude to act in the world beyond education. However, we observe two phenomena in society that make us reflect on how well we currently prepare our students for the world after formal education. Whereas the first phenomenon is related to the skills gap as experienced by the labour market and graduates, the second phenomenon revolves around the so-called polycrisis. Both these phenomena will be described below, after which we will explain why and how PPD education can play a role in navigating these phenomena.

Today’s students are, amongst others, the engineers, policy makers, and healthcare providers of the future. In essence, their time spent in education prepares them to deal with the challenges they will face as future professionals. For decades, however, educational institutes seem to have failed in delivering graduates with the competencies required for the world out there. This phenomenon is called the skills gap. Both the labour market (IsHak et al., 2009; 2013; Frajerman et al., 2019) and society at large (Cruess et al., 2015; Frank et al., 2014) have repeatedly asked for graduates with strong professional competencies such as self-management, effective communication, perspective-taking and reflexive capacity (European Commission, 2024, p. 257). Nonetheless, many graduates do not reach the required level after entering the labour market (IsHak et al., 2009; Wald, 2015). Additionally, students themselves have expressed concerns about their career prospects and preparedness for diverse and rapidly changing professional environments (Cruess et al., 2016; Silveira et al., 2019). This skills gap means that there is an urgent need—felt by both the world out there and the graduates themselves—to align the taught skills in class with the skills necessary in the future. This also implies that we should critically reflect on our own role as educational institutes; what do we prepare our students for, and how do we do this?

PPD education helped me in the process revolving around the question ‘who do I want to be?’, both as a future doctor and simply as a person in general. (Bachelor student Medicine)

It [the professional skills training] somehow boost my confidence and my understandings both regarding the course and the way people think. (Bachelor student International Business)

Next to this skills gap, there is another pressing phenomenon on the rise. Today’s society is facing multiple challenges on a larger scale, such as climate change, the rise of generative AI, or challenges related to (public) health (Bianchi et al., 2022; Kioupi & Voulvoulis, 2022). These challenges are interlinked and referred to as the polycrisis. The challenges are also reflected in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), a framework that you might be familiar with. The world outside education is not a static universe that we can fully prepare students for by simply teaching them the right knowledge and skills; on the contrary, the world out there is filled with dynamics that are continuously changing and moving. In preparing students for this outside world, we need to take these dynamics and characteristics into account.

The focus of education when preparing students for the world out there

These two phenomena raise the question of how to pay attention to these issues in educational contexts. The different challenges that present themselves within the polycrisis are sometimes referred to as ‘complex challenges’ or ‘wicked challenges’ (Hanstedt, 2018). This refers to the many different actors and factors that are involved in that challenge and make it therefore difficult to grasp. Sometimes a comparison is made with a bowl of spaghetti, it is difficult to distinguish the different strands of spaghetti individually as they are intertwined with other strands and ingredients. The parallel in complex challenges is that the challenge (the dish) can not only be understood from one perspective (one ingredient), but needs to be looked at as a whole.

A common trend to introduce students to these challenges is to integrate the SDGs into the curriculum. For example, the Faculty of Spatial Sciences at the University of Groningen has linked all its courses to the different SDGs (see). Additionally, different courses let students work on societal challenges in interdisciplinary teams, with the aim of introducing students to working on complex challenges. However, as students only have limited time to work on the complex challenge, which is indeed complex, priorities will depend on the learning outcomes of the course. This means that sometimes, in an attempt to grasp the complexity, the challenge is reduced to an assignment that can be executed in the given time frame, and students are expected to work on a smaller part of the challenge. However, as the main characteristic of these wicked problems is complexity, this restriction means that students will not be fully exposed to it. In education, therefore, we should not ‘ignore’ this aspect in teaching students how to deal with complex challenges but instead expose them to and teach them how to navigate these challenges. When designing education, we should continuously remind ourselves not to take away the opportunity for students to practice navigating complexity by leaving the complexity out. Instead, we should let students hone the right skills and attitudes necessary for navigating complexity. This is where education on PPD comes into play.

Different frameworks exist that provide an overview of skills (see box below) necessary for being prepared for the labour market after education. Additionally, the work field can demand certain skills from students that are not always taught through their formal curriculum. The need for training students to develop skills related to navigating the world out there—combined with the skills gap as noticed by the work field—makes it urgent to reflect on what we actually want to teach. Within SCOPE, we believe that taught skills should not be offered as a set of individual skills that can be checked off. Instead, we are convinced that stimulating a curious attitude, combined with teaching the skills required for this, can offer students the experience of actually learning what it takes to navigate in situations in the real world. Therefore, we need to teach our students to expand their mindset and introduce them to how they, as individuals, can navigate these different perspectives on challenges. Moreover, we need to teach skills such as perspective-taking and dealing with uncertainty that support this navigation process (read more on specific examples of skills in the next chapters).

What does this mean for educational institutes?

Acknowledging the skills gap and the complexities that present themselves in society influences the way we educate our future professionals. We need education where students have the opportunity to practice navigating the ‘wickedness’ and the skills required for life after education in a safe space. Granted, different educational formats are on the rise (e.g. Challenge Based Learning, Interdisciplinary courses, Placebased Learning, Real-life Learning Environments), but we need to stay attentive to the pitfall of the curtailment of complexity. We are convinced that we should not steal opportunities from students, but instead make use of the characteristic of complexity, expose our students to it, and pay attention to the central question that helps students navigate this characteristic: how to position myself towards something or someone else?

The central question: How to position yourself towards another?

As the previous section has described, the educational institutes prepare students for their role as professionals in the society of tomorrow. As the world out there is dynamic and forever changing, however, we do not teach students to act in ways that will help them function in today’s world; instead, we encourage them to develop a curious attitude that will help the professionals of the future shape tomorrow’s society—and the days after.

This brings us to the most important question: how can we as teachers and educational developers contribute to the development of an attitude that supports students in navigating the world out there? We believe that there are multiple approaches and that PPD plays a crucial part. As demonstrated in the other chapters, the underlying question is one of positionality: how do I (X) relate to another (Y)? This implies, however, that you are aware of what X and Y denote, and that you are curious to understand how they relate to each other (considering the relevant context). In the box below, we have included three examples to illustrate this central question.

In the examples in the box, the students should not only learn about Y and how to deal with or ‘solve’ it, but they are also encouraged to investigate to what degree their perception and perspective influence how they act. After exploring what they bring to the situation (X) and their task at hand (Y), they can start to think about how they should navigate their assignment. And perhaps, in collaboration with others, they discover that there are more perspectives (Z) to explore.

Conclusion

All in all, if we want to prepare students, in a healthy way, for the ‘world out there’ after education by exposing them to the complexity of that world, we should teach them how to navigate between what they  bring, and what the context brings. Teaching the skills and attitude around this central question can be challenging. With this book, we aim to give you a new perspective and present tools on how to approach this for students in your education system, with a specific focus on PPD.

The structure of this handbook

This handbook is developed in stages. In the first stage, we will focus on the first three chapters: The theoretical background, reflection as a core component of PPD and the pedagogical approach that we developed.

• Theoretical background

This chapter examines the key theories underpinning our approach, including Professional Identity Formation, the aims of education (including socialisation and subjectification), and boundary crossing. Each theory is introduced with a clear summary, followed by its practical application in educational settings.

• Reflection as a core component of PPD

Here, we explore the role of reflection in PPD, addressing its functions, definitions, and significance in (higher) education. The chapter also highlights reflection as a social learning process, providing insights into how it can be taught, assessed, and integrated into teaching practices.

• A pedagogical approach for reflection on PPD

This chapter presents the SCOPE pedagogical approach, a structured approach to embedding reflection on PPD in education. It outlines seven steps (from Step 1 to Step 7) to guide students through the reflective process, along with enabling factors such as teacher training, curriculum integration, and interdisciplinary collaboration. The chapter concludes with considerations for assessing the skill of reflection and PPD.

In subsequent stages, the handbook will expand to include chapters on teacher professionalisation and concrete examples of PPD in practice, offering further inspiration for educators.

The centre of expertise behind this handbook: SCOPE

The authors of this book are all part of SCOPE. As this book summarises our experiences and our approach, the following section will briefly shine light on our own journey.

The origins of SCOPE trace back to 2015, when two developments converged. On the one hand, we were asked to design leadership education for medical students at the University of Groningen. At the same time, concerns about student well-being—such as rising stress levels and pressure to perform—were becoming increasingly visible. In exploring these themes, we came to a key realisation: leadership and well-being are not separate domains, but both expressions of a broader developmental process. At their core lies a shared question—how do students develop as individuals and as future professionals?

This insight led to the establishment of SCOPE as an expertise centre for personal development. From the beginning, our ambition was to create a place where knowledge, research, and educational practice come together, and where personal and professional development are addressed in a coherent and systematic way. Although rooted in medical education, we believed this approach to be relevant across disciplines. SCOPE was therefore designed as more than an educational initiative. It became a breeding ground for expertise, where educators, researchers, and practitioners collaborate to strengthen how PPD is understood and taught.

From the moment SCOPE was established, our work has evolved along two closely interconnected lines. First, we develop and deliver education in close collaboration with academic programmes. Our teaching is research-driven and embedded in a continuous learning pathway, in which students are encouraged to cultivate an open, curious, and reflective attitude. Through workshops and courses on topics such as values and stress management, students not only gain insight into themselves, but also learn evidence-based methods to support their ongoing PPD—during their studies and throughout their careers. These educational activities are continuously refined through evaluation, reflection, and new insights.

Second, we conduct and integrate research on PPD education. Drawing on academic literature, educational practice, and interdisciplinary perspectives, we have developed a theoretical framework that informs both our teaching and our broader narrative. Central to this framework is the idea that PPD is an ongoing process, in which reflection, identity formation, and interaction with one’s environment play a crucial role.

By combining education and research, SCOPE aims to contribute to the development of students who are not only knowledgeable and skilled, but also reflective, resilient, and able to navigate complexity in both their personal and professional lives. Ultimately, our goal is to support students in becoming healthy, engaged professionals who continue to learn and develop throughout their careers. This integrated perspective forms the foundation of SCOPE—and of the ideas presented in this book. Our team consist of the following people, also all 8 the authors of this handbook: