Reflection as a core component of PPD

In this chapter, we describe the need for students and teachers to develop their critical reflection competencies as a vital part of PPD. We provide definitions of reflection and explore different aspects of teaching and assessing the action. Additionally, we will share some observations on teaching and learning reflection based on our own experiences and the academic literature. In the next chapters, models and tools for teaching reflection and the practical steps for implementing PPD and critical reflection into your own teaching practices are included.

Understanding the functions of reflection

To understand the importance of students’ development of reflection skills within the context of PPD, it is helpful to take a step back and consider the different uses of reflection in higher education. Reflection is used in many forms and for many purposes in education, which can obscure what is meant by ‘reflection’ and why it matters. Although the different uses of reflection are strongly interrelated, distinguishing between them helps to clarify both the educational value of and challenges involved in teaching and assessing reflection.

First, the capacity for critical reflection should be understood as an essential competency for higher education graduates, alongside discipline-specific knowledge and (research) skills (De Déa Roglio, 2009; Mackay & Tymon, 2014; Moon, 2004; Perusso et al., 2020; Veine et al., 2019). From this perspective, reflection is important in its own right. As academic education has roots in classical philosophy, students are expected to develop metacognitive capacities that will enable them to examine, question, and analyse their own thinking, assumptions, and reasoning. Critical reflection, therefore, constitutes a core academic habit of mind rather than merely a supportive learning activity.

Second, critical reflection plays a crucial role in learning processes more broadly, particularly in the development of competencies. This role is not limited to professional competencies but applies to competency development in general. For example, students in teacher education programmes engage extensively in reflective activities to connect theory and practice and evaluate their learning processes (Pultorak, 2010). For this reason, reflection is frequently embedded in courses and programmes that focus on competency development, often as a means for students to monitor and evaluate their own learning.

Third, the capacity for critical reflection is indispensable for cultivating personal and professional competencies and supports students’ professional development, contributing to the formation of well-rounded, adaptable, and ethically aware professionals (Hedberg, 2017; Mackay & Tymon, 2014; Moon, 2004; Veine et al., 2019). Moreover, reflection underpins key professional capacities such as critical thinking, perspective-taking, intercultural and interdisciplinary collaboration, and the ability to deal with complexity and uncertainty (Moon, 2004; Veine et al., 2019).

Fourth, as stated and explained in the introduction, reflective competencies have been associated with improved well-being and academic achievement (Akpur, 2020; Ghanizadeh, 2017).

Finally, related to the processes of socialisation and subjectification, critical reflection enables students to become aware of not only the values, norms, and assumptions they have internalised from their social and educational contexts, but also their own emerging perspectives. Through reflection, students gain insight into where they currently stand and where they wish to go. This awareness supports goal setting, self-direction, and the monitoring of PPD, thereby fostering an orientation towards lifelong learning (Feest & Iwugo, 2015; Perusso et al., 2020; Roessger, 2014; Tuononen et al., 2022).

It is important to realise that, beyond long-term career outcomes, the capacity to reflect may also have short-term benefits for students during their studies, as it has been associated with self-management skills and improved academic achievement (Ghanizadeh, 2017; Xu et al., 2023).

Defining reflection and critical reflection

Before we explain the current role of reflection within education and how reflection can support PPD education, we will elaborate on what we mean by reflection and critical reflection. In short, reflection is defined as the conscious examination of experiences, thoughts, and ways of doing things (Cunliffe, 2016; Korthagen & Vasalos, 2005). Critical reflection, on the other hand, is the careful examination of the beliefs, assumptions, and convictions underlying these experiences, thoughts, and ways of doing (Korthagen & Vasalos, 2005; Moon, 2004). Critical reflection allows us to frame and reframe internal and external experiences with openness and flexibility (Moon, 2004). In other words, it enables us to make sense of what we experience, (de)construct meaning (framing), and critically review, reinterpret, or change our existing interpretations or meanings (reframing), based on the experiences that we encounter.

In the work of Argyris (1991) and Schön (1983), this cycle (framing–reframing) has been called ‘double-loop learning’ as opposed to ‘single-loop learning’, where assumptions and beliefs are not explored. Single-loop learning refers to a form of individual learning in which a person detects a mismatch between intended and actual outcomes and adjusts their behaviour accordingly, without questioning the underlying assumptions, goals, or values that guide that behaviour (Routine Problem Solving; see Korthagen & Vasalos, 2005). In short, single-loop learning improves performance within an existing framework, whereas double-loop learning interrogates and potentially transforms the framework itself (see Figure below).

During profound reflection, students challenge their practices, thoughts, and assumptions by considering different perspectives—such as their own experiences, the views of others, or relevant theory—thereby arriving at new insights and understandings (Mezirow & Taylor, 2009; Schön, 1983). This process is also referred to as transformative learning.

Critical reflection as a competency

Building on this definition, we see (critical) reflection as a skill or a competency that can be taught, trained, and developed. It is not a trait that individuals are born with. Developing reflective competencies and a reflective mindset is not a passive process; rather, it requires structured training, assessment, and feedback to be cultivated effectively (Trimasse, 2025). Reflection, therefore, does not just happen by itself. Moreover, a lack of theoretical basis in reflection and practical skills has been shown to be an obstacle for learning reflection (Butani et al., 2017; Chan & Lee, 2021).

Critical reflection in higher education

Despite the widely acknowledged importance of reflection, (critical) reflection receives limited and often superficial attention in contemporary higher education programmes. While critical reflection is frequently presented as a desirable learning outcome, it is rarely treated in practice as an independent learning objective and almost never embedded systematically within curricula. Instead, reflection is often used as an assessment tool to gauge other competencies or monitor students’ development. For example, this can be done by adding a reflection report to an assignment and asking students to reflect on their experiences. The danger in this is that students may see reflection as just another box they need to check, potentially turning them into ‘reflective zombies’. This term was introduced by De la Croix and Veen in 2018 and represents students who go through all the steps of reflection without actually reflecting. Even though these ‘reflective zombies’ produce neat reflection reports that meet all expectations, their reflections remain empty, superficial, and do not affect them internally (De la Croix & Veen, 2018).

Another problem is that teachers may (unconsciously) assume that students already possess the capacity to reflect and that students can use this capacity to reflect upon and evaluate the level of their skills, for instance their skills to collaborate in a team or presentation skills. Reflection as a competency is often not taught, practised, and assessed, but reduced to a single written reflection assignment that is submitted and graded. This leaves little opportunity for dialogue, feedback, or meaning-making, even though this dialogical interaction is essential as it allows for gaining insight, deepens the reflection, and supports students’ learning.

I think reflection through writing doesn’t mean anything whereas if given a chance to speak it’s like consulting and actually reflect on something (Master student Business Administration)

When reflection is incorporated into teaching, it often remains fairly superficial in our experience, rather than reaching a deeper, perspective-challenging level that encourages students to critically examine the beliefs and assumptions shaping their thoughts, actions, and experiences. This situation is problematic, as the development of professional competencies depends on an adequate level of critical reflection. Moreover, this superficial reflection aimed at evaluating a wide range of other skills  may give rise to a negative connotation of reflection as an educational practice (Chan & Lee, 2021; De la Croix & Veen, 2018). Additionally, students frequently express resistance to reflection tasks, perceiving them as unclear, artificial, or merely instrumental. This may further diminish their initiative and motivation to engage in reflective learning and hinder the development of a reflective attitude that is essential for the educational aim of subjectification and PPD. Moreover, students who are not accustomed to reflective practice or dialogical reflection may fail to recognise reflective questions as part of academic inquiry and may experience discomfort when confronted with them. In some cases, reflection is framed as therapy or coaching, considered a private matter rather than an academic exercise. When teachers pose probing or reflective questions, students may respond with remarks such as ‘This is not a therapy session’.

Reflection as a social learning process

Dialogues and a social context have been shown to foster deeper reflection (Ghamoushi, 2025; Marshall et al., 2022; Hill & West, 2020). Badger (2010) has highlighted the value of interaction and dialogue in the context of oral examination of the development of students’ reflective capacities. According to students and teachers, a dialogue approach is engaging, allowing learners to effectively demonstrate their reflective skills in a format that resonates with their preferences. In particular, they value the interactive and personal setting as well as the opportunity to receive feedback or to clarify themselves. Furthermore, written assessment hinders opportunities for probing and dialogue, thereby limiting teachers’ capacity to evaluate students’ reflective abilities and facilitate further reflective development (Badger, 2010; Chan & Lee, 2021; Feest & Iwugo, 2015).

Conclusion

As discussed in the previous section, we see critical reflection as an essential goal and learning mechanism in a student’s PPD. Critical reflection can be taught and learned, but it requires attention and time. The following section, therefore, will introduce the pedagogical principles developed by SCOPE, which can help to effectively implement and design education for students that will enable them to critically reflect on their PPD.