2 Whose Heritage? A Short Introduction to European Heritage Debates
This short introduction to the topic of heritage is meant for students. It can be handed out before, during, or after activities, or used as the basis for a short oral presentation on heritage.
For a more in-depth version of this chapter, please see the Handbook
In April 2019, the fire in Notre-Dame de Paris led to a worldwide response. People flocked to the scene, wept, and if they knew how to, prayed and sang religious songs. That same evening, President Macron launched a funding campaign for the reconstruction of the cathedral as an important site of French and world heritage. Many individuals donated, including some of the richest people in France and abroad. Less than a day after the fire, 880 million euros had been collected.
This case is a good starting point for investigating the idea of heritage. On the one hand, Notre-Dame is an important site of belonging and identification on multiple levels, from the personal to the global. All over the world, people cared about Notre-Dame, regardless of religious affiliations: the cathedral lives in the memories of millions of people. It has a long history of being one of the greatest tourist attractions in Paris, receiving over twelve million visitors a year. In the nineteenth century, Notre-Dame became a symbol for Paris and for France: a marker of identity. The Gothic style of the cathedral, as first developed in the Île-de-France region which surrounds Paris in the twelfth century, was seen as an example of French architectural genius.
Yet, on the other hand, the history of Notre-Dame shows the contested nature of heritage and its connection to power relations. Although the chorus of approval for the generous gathering of funds was dominant, there were also opposing voices. Some were incensed by the ready availability of funds which could have easily been used to address problems associated with poverty in France. Others accused Macron of favouritism: his conversion and baptism in the Catholic Church in 2017 was widely publicized and a matter of public knowledge. The restoration of Notre-Dame seemed then to favour Catholicism as somehow inherent to French identity.
In this short introduction, we discuss the concept of heritage and its development over the past decades, focusing on religious heritage in particular, in the context of secularization and the increasing ethnic, cultural, and religious diversity of Europe, which has been accompanied by to changing policies concerning heritage, as well as changing practices on the ground. Grassroots movements in communities claiming heritage and the impact of international and national organizations are both important. Arguably, the most important development is that accessing, contributing to, and benefiting from one’s heritage has come to be acknowledged as a fundamental human right for all human beings. All of this has led to a changed perspective on what heritage is, who has control over it and, finally, on the role of the heritage expert.
What Constitutes Heritage?
Heritage can be understood as a story, an interpretation of historical elements, such as sites, events, practices, or even people and objects. It serves as a condensed version of a community’s identity and offers explanations for its present circumstances. Heritage isn’t just an abstract concept; it is a story that is lived through rituals such as religious ceremonies, traditional attire at major life events, or commemorating significant historical moments. Importantly, the heritage story isn’t fixed; it evolves through the creative meaning-making efforts of communities who claim and shape their own narratives. However, this process is not without its drawbacks: when one group asserts its heritage, others may be excluded. Thus, heritage is an inherently political story, as its narrative determines who belongs to a community and who does not.
Traditionally, the cultivation of heritage has been tied to nation states, but it can also belong to various communities based on religion, ethnicity or even shared interests such as sports fandom. Increasingly, minority groups are asserting their own heritage, sometimes in conflict with the earlier and still dominant narratives. For instance, in the Netherlands, the 17th century has long been celebrated as the Dutch Golden Age, marked by political and cultural prowess. However, this narrative has more recently faced criticism for its ties to colonialism and oppression, prompting descendants of the oppressed to reclaim it as a ‘dark heritage’.
This highlights a crucial point: heritage narratives can reshape a community’s self-image. We are currently witnessing a struggle over heritage in Europe. Some are arguing that European heritage is essentially Christian and seek to exclude religious minorities. Others argue for a pluralist understanding of European heritage, where diverse voices and heritages can coexist.
The Diverse Religious Landscape of Europe
Europe’s religious landscape has undergone significant changes. While the percentage of non-religious individuals has grown since the 1960s, new religious communities, including immigrant and convert populations, have emerged, and interest in spirituality has grown.
In countries such as Great Britain, the Czech Republic, Sweden and the Netherlands, a larger portion of the population identifies as non-religious than as a member of a major religious group. However, leaving organized religion does not necessarily mean abandoning faith or religious heritage sites, objects, knowledge systems or practices. Believers and non-believers alike value religious buildings as symbols of identity, for example, with churches and synagogues becoming tourist attractions or repurposed spaces. Additionally, the rise of the ‘spiritual but not religious’ category has led to the creation of new heritage narratives outside traditional religions.
Globalization, marked by widespread immigration, has transformed Europe’s religious landscape. Migrants have brought their religious traditions with them, occasionally attracting European converts. The result is that Europe has become marked by superdiversity. However, this has also fuelled political discourse around religious heritage, with religion becoming a chief marker of difference, particularly concerning Muslim identities.
Challenges and Human Rights
Heritage has long had an association with material power and authority. In short, those with the power to acquire, construct, and defend valuable objects and sites, also had the power and the interest to ensure that they were passed on within systems of power. While revolutions, such as the French Revolution, nationalised heritage collections and sites formerly in the possession of religious communities and aristocratic families, the transfer of power from the private or religious domain to the State did not simply and directly lead to cultural democratization. Experts and government departments now took on the authorizing role of determining who had physical and intellectual access to the State’s patrimony, what was worth preserving or restoring (and what wasn’t).
The 1972 UNESCO Convention defined world cultural heritage as monuments, groups of buildings or sites with outstanding universal value. In its emphasis on the material, this definition harbours bias towards elite heritage, as represented in castles, cathedrals and masterpieces of European art, inevitably associated with elite patrons, owners, and elite systems of knowledge and expertise in their evaluation.. To address this bias, the Council of Europe proposed a new framework in 2005 during a meeting in Faro, Portugal. This new framework prioritizes people and their values over physical sites and objects. Cultural heritage is defined as resources inherited from the past that individuals or groups themselves identify as reflecting and expressing their own evolving values, beliefs, knowledge and traditions. The fundamental principle underlying this development, is the Conventions drawing on Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: “Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.” This universal right transcends diversity in religion, economic status, ethnicity, language, physical or mental ability, gender, or immigration status.
For this reason, the Faro Convention affirms everyone’s right to freely participate in their community’s cultural life. Participation encompasses more than mere engagement with authorized heritage – it involves actively identifying, studying, interpreting, protecting, conserving and presenting cultural heritage. Additionally, it includes public reflection and debate on the challenges and opportunities presented by cultural heritage.
However, the implications of the Faro Convention for shared ownership and responsibility for heritage, dialogue and democracy are still being explored. Projects like Rebelah seek to address these issues, but questions remain about how difficult, contested or obscure heritage can serve as a shared source of remembrance. Furthermore, there is uncertainty about who controls the inclusion process – is it the members of a heritage community, or the elite and authorized experts? These challenges must be navigated by anyone attempting to promote shared responsibility and participation in religious heritage for the sake of social inclusion.
In conclusion, European heritage debates reflect complex narratives, power dynamics and shifting identities. Understanding heritage’s evolving nature and its role in shaping collective memory is essential to fostering inclusive societies.
